Monday, June 15, 2009

Hulstijn (2001) Intentional and Incidental Second Language Vocabulary Learning: A Reappraisal of Elaboration, Rehearsal and Automaticity

So this is the paper that I should have been reading last week.  Hulstijn's (2003), which I read last week, reviewed more broadly the use of the incidental/intentional distinction across the fields of psychology and second language learning, considering grammar as well as vocabulary.  This earlier 2001 book chapter is focused specifically on vocabulary acquisition and amongst other things has a detailed summary of the empirical results related to rehearsal. Early on Hulstijn reviews the traditional and connectionist perspectives on what it means to "know a word" and I found the following particularly interesting:
The acquisition of an entry’s features in L1 is generally believed to take place in an incremental way (Nagy & Herman, 1987), consisting of the filling of various `slots' of entries in the mental lexicon (De Bot, Paribakht & Wesche, 1997) but to date no specific claims have been made concerning the order in which L2 lexical features must or may be acquired
The emphasis on the statement about order of feature acquisition is mine.  I'm thinking this refers to the order in which spelling, meaning, pronunciation and other aspects of entries in the presumed "mental lexicon" are acquired.  I wonder what kind of experiments would explore this?  I guess presenting the text or audio of a word without L2 definition of L1 translation might offer some degree of control, but seems to me that the lexical entry itself would not emerge until a number of presentations of each aspect, and it would take time for each to become fixed.

My speculation aside, Hulstijin emphasizes two factors of the many that affect the difficulty of learning new words: codability (related to learner's prior phonotactic knowledge), and arbitrariness of the form-meaning link (related to decomposability of the word, e.g. stoplight).  After the familiar reprisal of the large numbers of words required by learners to achieve the 95% threshold generally agreed as a prerequisite for text comprehension there is a fascinating dissection of the automatic skills required for fluent speech, listening and reading, which I summarize below:
  • Normal, fluent speech proceeds at a speed of two to three words per second
  • Humans have a capacity for consciously focusing their attention on only a very limited amount of information
  • It follows that the speech production process must largely take place automatically, i.e. conscious focus on message while articulation handled unconsciously
  • Similarly for listening, word recognition processes have to take place automatically in order for listener attention to be focused exclusively on message
  • Normal fluent reading proceeds is around three to six words per second and by the same argument word recognition must be automatic
As I have mentioned previously I think evaluation of teaching methods and software really should be in terms of the language goals of the learner, and I think the above neatly summarizes the set into which most language learners goals will fall.  Here is another tidbit that caught my attention:
Phonological representations emerge during the process of lexical access, and are either utilized (the so-called indirect route to lexical access) or not (Taft, 1993: 91).
Which appears to refer to the possibility of reading without hearing the words in your head, and I suddenly find myself wondering whether there is always an audio track in my head when I am reading.  As soon as I think about it there is, but perhaps when I am not forcing the reading process into conscious awareness, it is not.  So that Taft reference would be an interesting one to pursue.  Makes me think of angles for investigation of consciousness.

In a subsequent section I was surprised to read the assertion that:
Only less skilled readers use contextual information in word recognition (Stanovich, 1980) ... , in normal listening and reading, lexical access is not subject to top-down influence from syntactic and semantic processing; the processing of a word is largely driven by the input code itself rather than by contextual information (Cutler, 1995: 114; Seidenberg, 1995: 165).
Whereas I would have thought, particularly from a connectionist perspective, that contextual information in the form of collocation awareness would be pre-activating sets of words that one would expect to find next; thus the slight surprise every time one hears the All American Rejects lyrics "I wake up every evening ...".  However Hulstijn goes on to describe the threshold hypothesis:
according to which knowledge of reading goals, text characteristics and reading strategies (such as inferring the meaning of unknown words from context), cannot compensate for a lack of language knowledge if the latter remains below a certain threshold level.
and I wonder if this is the same as the 95% vocabulary requirement for text comprehension?  All of this is reinforcing the argument that learning to apply reading strategies should not take precedence over learning a core vocabulary.

Specifically on incidental versus intentional learning, Hulstijn says that while theoretically the distinction between them is difficult to maintain, methodologically the distinction is important.  There is a review of the distinction in both the psychological and SLA literature similar to the 2003 book chapter, and the important point for our meta-analysis is this:
in the applied domains of L1 and L2 pedagogy, incidental vocabulary learning refers to the learning of vocabulary as the by-product of any activity not explicitly geared to vocabulary learning, with intentional vocabulary learning referring to any activity aiming at committing lexical information to memory.
However as Hulstijn points out it is possible to construct incidental learning tasks where subjects process new vocabulary only superficially and intentional tasks where they will process it deeply.  Hulstijn also cites multiple studies that indicate that vocabulary acquisition is enhanced when learner's attention is oriented towards unfamiliar words, but I still have misgivings about time on task.  Hulstijn reasons that:
From an educational point of view, simply encouraging learners to spend much time on reading and listening, although leading to some incidental vocabulary learning, will not be enough in itself
Although I don't know that I am convinced that this is what the evidence presented indicates.  In a subsequent section on pedagogic consequences, rehearsal is one of a number of areas explored in some detail.  I was particularly fascinated by the following:
In a name-learning experiment using college students, Landauer & Bjork (1978) found that uniform spacing was better (for presentation) and a pattern of increasing intervals (for testing). The educational implication of this finding would be that incidental vocabulary learning benefits from regular and frequent exposure whereas intentional vocabulary learning benefits from self tests with increasing intervals.
Which makes me think that I should re-read that paper. I had certainly assumed that an expanding rehearsal series (ERS) would be the optimal way to present vocabulary whether for intentional study, or incidental learning through text presentation.  Hulstijn also has many interesting suggestions for exercises to achieve automaticity, but overall I don't quite get the conclusion that L2 study based purely on extensive reading is necessarily insufficient.  I mean it's odd because I'm all for explicit study of vocabulary, and I am certainly open to there being a potential benefit, but the various arguments made in this chapter don't convince me that we have evidence to demonstrate that one couldn't be as effective studying an L2 purely through incidental learning.  I mean the main argument for using intentional learning is that vocabulary acquisition improves if learner's attention is oriented towards unfamiliar words, but this comes back to how vocabulary acquisition is being measured.  If orienting attention towards unfamiliar words improves scores on simple vocabulary recall tests, it doesn't mean that the learners' key goals are being met.

It is possible the studies Hulstijn refers to are already taking this into consideration, but it seems to me that the question to be answered is not whether vocabulary acquisition improves through intentional study, but whether progress towards fluent speech, listening, reading and writing are advanced.  That is more difficult to test, but not impossible.  Seems to me like the experiment to assess this sort of thing would be a reading comprehension exercise with and without glosses (or with and without dictionary lookup or whatever) for the two conditions, where the post-test is another reading comprehension exercise that involves similar vocabulary.  That would seem to get at the real question as to whether the focus on vocabulary is benefiting the learner's long term goals.  Perhaps that kind of study has already been done.  We are going to be reading some of the paper's referenced by Hulstijn as part of our meta-analysis, so I will come back to this point once I have read some more.

Hulstijn also emphasizes the importance of achieving automaticity to allow fluent vocabulary use.  There is the suggestion that Krashen's comprehensible input hypothesis has lead L2 specialists and materials writers to encourage L2 learners to move quickly through course materials and not to reprocess old materials extensively.  Hulstijn indicates this may have an adverse effect on achieving automaticity, and suggests a number of tasks designed to promote automaticity that are likely to be more interesting for learners than simple re-reading of old texts.

Cited by 128 [ATGSATOP]

Hulstijn's References:
Aitchison, J. (1994) Words in the Mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon (Cited by 627). (Second edition.) Oxford: Basil Black¬well.
Alderson, J.C. (1984) Reading in a foreign language: A reading or a language problem (Cited by 23)? In J.C. Alderson & A.H. Urquhart (eds.), Reading in a foreign language (pp. 1-24) London: Longman.
Allen, V.F. (1983) Techniques in teaching vocabulary (Cited by 117). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Anisfeld, M. (1966) Psycholinguistic perspectives on language learning (Cited by 6). In A. Valdman (ed.), Trends in language teaching (pp. 107-119) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Atkins, P.W.B., & Baddeley, A.D. (1998) Working memory and distributed vocabulary learning (Cited by 36). Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 537-552.
Baddeley, A. (1997) Human memory: Theory and practice (Cited by 2154) (revised edition) Hove (U.K.): Psychology Press.
Bahrick, H.P. (1984) Semantic memory content in permastore: Fifty years of memory for Spanish learned in school (Cited by 205). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 1-29.
Bahrick, H.P., Bahrick, L.E., Bahrick, A.S., & Bahrick, P.E. (1993) Maintenance of foreign language vocabulary and the spacing effect (Cited by 72). Psychological Science, 4, 316-321.
Bahrick, H.P., & Phelps, E. (1987) Retention of Spanish vocabulary over (Cited by 99) 8 years. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 13, 344-349.
Bauer, L. and P. Nation. (1993) Word families. International Journal of Lexicography, 6, 253-279.
Bjork, R.A. (1988) Retrieval practice and the maintenance of knowledge (Cited by 126). In M.M. Gruneberg, P.E. Morris, & R.S. Sykes (eds.), Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues (pp. 396-401) Chichester: Wiley.
Bloom, K.C., & Shuell, T.J. (1981) Effects of massed and distributed practice on the learning and retention of second-language vocabulary (Cited by 48). Journal of Educational Research, 74, 245-248.
Bogaards, P. (1994) Le vocabulaire dans l'apprentissage des langues (Cited by 54) étrangères. Paris: Didier.
Brown, H.D. (1994) Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (Cited by 912). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Carr, E.M., & Mazur-Stewart, M. (1988) The effects of the vocabulary overview guide on vocabulary comprehension and retention. Journal of Reading Behavior, 20, 43-62.
Carroll, J.B. (1986) Second Language. In R.F. Dillon & R.J. Sternberg (eds.), Cognition and instruction (pp. 83-125).
Carter, R., & McCarthy, M. (1988) Lexis and structure (Cited by 1). In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching (pp. 18-38) Harlow, U.K.: Longman.
Carver, C.P. (1990) Reading rate. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Chun, D.M., & Plass, J.L. (1996) Effects of multimedia annotations on vocabulary acquisition (Cited by 207). The Modern Language Journal, 80, 183-198.
Coady, J. (1993) Research on ESL (Cited by 83)/EFL vocabulary acquisition: Putting it in context. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes, & J. Coady (eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 3-23) Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
Coady, J. (1997a) L2 vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition (pp. 225-237) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Coady, J. (1997b) L2 vocabulary acquisition: A synthesis of the research. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition (pp. 273-290) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Corson, D. (1997) The learning and use of academic English words (Cited by 69). Language Learning, 47, 671-718.
Craik, F.I.M., & Lockhart, R.S. (1972) Levels of processing: A framework for memory research (Cited by 3428). Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Craik, F.I.M., & Tulving, E. (1975) Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory (Cited by 1346). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268-294.
Crothers, E.J., & Suppes, P. (1967) Experiments in second-language learning (Cited by 56). New York: Academic Press.
Cutler, A. (1995) Spoken word recognition and production (Cited by 46). In J.L. Miller & P.D. Eimas (eds.), Speech, language, and communication (pp. 97-136) San Diego: Academic Press.
Day, R.R., & Bamford, J. (1998) Extensive reading in the second language classroom (Cited by 252). New York: Cambridge University Press.
De Bot, K., Paribakht, T.S., & Wesche, M.B. (1997) Toward a lexical processing model for the study of second language vocabulary acquisition: Evidence from ESL reading (Cited by 77). Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 309-329.
Dempster, F.N. (1987) Effects of variable encoding and spaced presentations on vocabulary learning (Cited by 46). Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 162-170.
Ebbinghaus, H. (1964) Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (Cited by 941). New York: Dover.
Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989) Learning to learn English: A course in learner training (Cited by 305). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, N.C. (1994) Consciousness in second language learning: Psychological perspectives on the role of conscious processes in vocabulary acquisition (Cited by 49). AILA Review, 11, 37-56.
Ellis, N.C., & Beaton, A. (1993) Factors affecting the learning of foreign language vocabulary: Imagery keyword mediators and phonological short-term memory (Cited by 74). Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46A, 533-558.
Ellis, N.C., & Laporte, N. (1997) Contexts of acquisition: Effects of formal instruction and naturalistic exposure on second language acquisition (Cited by 32). In A.M.B. de Groot & J.F. Kroll (eds.), Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 53-83) Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Ellis, N.C. & Sinclair, S. (1996) Working memory in the acquisition of vocabulary and syntax: Putting language in good order (Cited by 72). Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49A, 234-250.
Ellis, R. (1994) Factors in the incidental acquisition of second language vocabulary from oral input: A review essay (Cited by 44). Applied Language Learning, 5, 1-32.
Esser, U., & Nowak, U. (1990) Cognitive training of second-language learning strategies: The formation of a new research approach in foreign-language learning psychology (Cited by 0). Glottodidactica, 20, 15-20.
Eysenck, M.W. (1982) Incidental learning and orienting tasks (Cited by 26). In C.R. Puff (ed.), Handbook of research methods in human memory and cognition (pp. 197-228) New York: Academic Press.
Favreau, M., & Segalowitz, N. (1983) Automatic and controlled processes in the first and second language reading of fluent bilinguals (Cited by 91). Memory and Cognition, 11, 565-574.
Gairns, R., & Redman, S. (1986) Working with words: A guide to teaching and learning vocabulary (Cited by 93). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gatbonton, E., & Segalowtiz, N. (1988) Creative automatization: Principles for promoting fluency within a communicative framework (Cited by 54). TESOL Quarterly, 22, 473-492.
Goodman, K.S. (1971) Psycholinguistic universals in the reading process (Cited by 154). In P. Pimsleur & T. Quinn (eds.), The psychology of second language learning (pp. 135-142) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gu, Y., & Johnson, R.K. (1996) Vocabulary learning strategies (Cited by 198) and language learning outcomes (Cited by 140). Language Learning, 46, 643-679.
Harley, B. (1995) The lexicon in language research (Cited by 5). In B. Harley (ed.), Lexical issues in language learning (pp. 1-28) Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Hatch, E., & Brown, C. (1995) Vocabulary, semantics, and language education (Cited by 180). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hazenberg, S., & Hul¬stijn, J.H. (1996) Defining a minimal receptive second-language vocabulary for non-native university students: An empirical investigation. Applied Linguistics, 7, 145-163.
Henning, G.H. (1973) Remembering foreign language vocabulary: Acoustic and semantic parameters (Cited by 57). Language Learning, 23, 185-196.
Hirsh, D., & Nation, P. (1992) What vocabulary size is needed to read unsimplified texts for pleasure (Cited by 83)? Reading in a Foreign Language, 8, 689-696.
Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P. (1998) Beyond a Clockwork Orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading (Cited by 99). Reading in a Foreign Language, 11, 207-223.
Huckin, T., & Coady, J. (1999) Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: A review (Cited by 103). Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 181-193.
Hulstijn, J.H. (1992) Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning (Cited by 151). In P.J. Arnaud & H. Béjoint (eds.), Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp. 113-125) London: Macmillan.
Hulstijn, J.H. (1993) When do foreign-language readers look up the meaning of unfamiliar words (Cited by 128)? The influence of task and learner variables. Modern Language Journal, 77, 139-147.
Hulstijn, J.H. (1997) Mnemonic methods in foreign-language vocabula (Cited by 0)¬ry learning: Theoretical conside¬rations and pedago¬gical impli¬cations. In: J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language Vocabulary Acqui¬sition: A Rationale for Pedagogy (pp. 203-224) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Hulstijn, J.H. (forthcoming) Incidental and intentional learning. In C. Doughty & M.H. Long (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition. Blackwell.
Hulstijn, J.H., Hollander, M., & Greidanus, T. (1996) Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words (Cited by 177). Modern Language Journal, 80, 327-339.
Hulstijn, J., & Laufer, B (1998) What leads to better incidental vocabulary learning: Comprehensible input or comprehensible output? Paper presented at the Third Pacific Second Language Research Forum, Aoyama Gakuin University, Tokyo, Japan, 26-29 March, 1998.
Hulstijn, J.H., & Trompetter, P. (1999) Incidental learning of second-language vocabulary in computer-assisted reading and writing tasks (Cited by 15). In D. Albrechtsen, B. Henrikse, I.M. Mees, & E. Poulsen (eds.), Perspectives on foreign and second language pedagogy (pp. 191-200) Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press.
Jacobs, G.M., Dufon, P., & Fong, C.H. (1994) L1 and L2 vocabulary glosses in L2 reading passages: Their effectiveness for increasing comprehension and vocabulary knowledge (Cited by 55). Journal of Research in Reading, 17, 19-28.
Jones, F.R. (1995) Learning an alien lexicon: A teach-yourself case study (Cited by 17). Second Language Research, 11, 95-111.
Knight, S. (1994) Dictionary: The tool of last resort in foreign language reading (Cited by 177)? A new perspective. Modern Language Journal, 78, 285-299.
Koda, K. (1996) L2 word recognition research: A critical review (Cited by 81). The Modern Language Journal, 80, 450-460.
Krantz, G. (1991) Learning vocabulary in a foreign language: A study of reading strategies (Cited by 17). Göteborg, Sweden: Acta Universitatis Gothburgensis.
Krashen, S. (1981) Second language acquisition and second language learning (Cited by 1936). Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. (1982) Principles and practice in second language acquisition (Cited by 2986). Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. (1989) We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis (Cited by 317). The Modern Language Journal, 73, 440-464.
Kroll, J.F., & De Groot, A.M.B. (1997) Lexical and conceptual memory in the bilingual: Mapping form to meaning in two languages (Cited by 172). In A.M.B. de Groot & J.F. Kroll (eds.), Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 169-199) Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Landauer, T.K., & Bjork, R.A. (1978) Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning (Cited by 228). In M.M. Gruneberg, P.E. Morris, & R.N. Sykes (eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp. 625-632) London: Academic Press.
Landauer, T.K., & Dumais, S.T. (1997) A solution to Plato's problem: The Latent Semantic Analysis theory of acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge (Cited by 1794). Psychological Review, 104, 211-240.
Laufer, B. (1988) The concept of (Cited by 30) `synforms' (similar lexical forms) in vocabulary acquisition. Language and Education, 2, 113-132.
Laufer, B. (1991) Similar lexical forms in interlanguage (Cited by 10). Tübingen: Gunter Narr.
Laufer, B. (1992) How much lexis is necessary for reading comprehension (Cited by 164)? In P. Arnaud and H. Béjoint (eds.), Vocabulary and Applied Linguistics (pp. 126-132) London: Macmillan.
Laufer, B. (1997) What's in a word that makes it hard or easy: some intralexical factors that affect the learning of words (Cited by 77). In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 140-155) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Laufer, B., & Nation, P. (1995) Vocabulary size and use: Lexical richness in L2 written production (Cited by 181). Applied Linguistics, 16, 307-322.
Laufer, B., & Osimo, H. (1991) Facilitating long-term retention of vocabulary: The second-hand cloze (Cited by 10). System, 19, 217-224.
Laufer, B., & Shmueli, K. (1997) Memorizing new words: Does teaching have anything to do with it (Cited by 30)? RELC Journal, 28, 89-108.
Lawson, M.J., & Hogden, D. (1996) The vocabulary-learning strategies of foreign-language students (Cited by 108). Language Learning, 46, 101-135.
Levelt, W.J.M. (1989) Speaking: From intention to articula (Cited by 33)¬tion. Cam¬bridge, Mass.: Bradford & M.I.T. Press.
Levelt, W.J.M. (1993) Accessing words in speech production: Stages, processes and representations (Cited by 313). In W.J.M. Levelt (ed.), Lexical access in speech production (pp. 1-22) Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Levelt, W.J.M., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A.S. (1998) A theory of lexical access in speech production (Cited by 1325). Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics.
Lewis, M. (1994) The lexical approach (Cited by 577). Hove, UK: Language Teaching Publications.
MacWhinney, B. (1995) Language-specific prediction in foreign language learning (Cited by 13). Language Testing, 12, 292-320.
McGeoch, J.A. (1942) The psychology of human learning (Cited by 619). New York: Longman.
McLaughlin, B. (1965) "Intentional" and "incidental" learning in human subjects: The role of instructions to learn and motivation (Cited by 22). Psychological Bulletin, 63, 359-376.
Meara, P. (1989) Matrix models of vocabulary acquisition (Cited by 10). AILA Review, 6, 66-74.
Meara, P. (1993) The bilingual lexicon and the teaching of vocabulary (Cited by 42). In R. Schreuder & B. Weltens (eds.), The bilingual lexicon (pp. 279-297) Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Meara, P. (1997) Towards a new approach to modelling vocabulary acquisition (Cited by 49). In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 109-121) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Mondria, J-A., & Mondria-de Vries, S. (1993) Efficiently memorizing words with the help of word cards and "hand computer": Theory and applications. System, 22, 47-57.
Mondria, J-A., & Wit-de Boer, M. (1991) The effects of contextual richness on the guessability and the retention of words in a foreign language. Applied Linguistics, 12, 249-267.
Morgan, J., & Rinvolucri, M. (1986) Vocabulary. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univer¬sity Press.
Nagy, W. (1997) On the role of context in first- and second-language vocabulary learning (Cited by 116). In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 64-83) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Nagy, W.E., & Anderson, R.C. (1984) How many words are there in printed school English (Cited by 350)? Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 304-330.
Nagy, W.E., & Herman, P.A. (1987) Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge: Implications for acquisition and instruction (Cited by 243). In M.G. McKeown & M. Curtis (eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 19-35) Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Nagy, W.E., Herman, P.A., & Anderson, R.A. (1985) Learning words from context (Cited by 422). Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 233-253.
Nation, I.S.P. (1990) Teaching and Learning Vocabu (Cited by 53)¬lary. New York: Newbury House.
Nation, P. (1993) Vocabulary size, growth, and use (Cited by 57). In R. Schreuder and B. Weltens (eds.), The Bilingual Lexicon (pp.115-134) Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Nation, P., & Coady, J. (1988) Vocabulary and reading (Cited by 139). In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching (pp. 97-110) Harlow, U.K.: Longman.
Nation, P., & Newton, J. (1997) Teaching vocabulary. In: J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language Vocabulary Acqui¬sition: A Rationale for Pedagogy (pp. 238-254) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, P., & Waring, R. (1997) Vocabulary size, text coverage and word lists (Cited by 148). In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 6-19) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
O'Dell, F. (1997) Incorporating vocabulary into the syllabus. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 258-278) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R.L., & Crookall, D. (1989) Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues (Cited by 109). The Modern Language Journal, 73, 404-419.
Papagno, C., Valentine, T., & Baddeley, A. (1991) Phonological short-term memory and foreign-language vocabulary learning (Cited by 140). Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 331-347.
Paradis, M. (1997) The cognitive neuropsychology of bilingualism (Cited by 111). In A.M.B. de Groot & J.F. Kroll (eds.), Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 331-354) Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Paribakht, T.S., & Wesche, M. (1996) Enhancing vocabulary acquisition through reading: A hierarchy of text-related exercise types (Cited by 37). The Canadian Modern Language Review, 52, 155-178.
Paribakht, T.S., & Wesche, M. (1997).Vocabulary enhancement activities and reading for meaning in second language vocabulary acquisition (Cited by 136). In: J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language Vocabulary Acqui¬sition: A Rationale for Pedagogy (pp. 174-202) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Paribakht, T.S., & Wesche, M. (1999) Reading and "incidental" L2 vocabulary acquisition: An introspective study of lexical inferencing (Cited by 85). Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 195-224.
Pimsleur, P. (1967) A memory schedule (Cited by 42). The Modern Language Journal, 51, 73-75.
Porte, G. (1988) Poor language learners and their strategies for dealing with new vocabulary (Cited by 37). English Language Teaching Journal, 42, 167-172.
Postman, L. (1964) Short-term memory and incidental learning (Cited by 105). In A.W. Melton (ed.), Categories of human learning (pp. 145-201) New York: Academic Press.
Prince, P. (1996) Second language vocabulary learning: The role of context versus translations as a function of proficiency (Cited by 79). The Modern Language Journal, 80, 478-493.
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1989) The psychology of reading (Cited by 847). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rivers, W.M. (1967) Teaching foreign-language skills (Cited by 462). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Rodgers, T.S. (1969) On measuring vocabulary difficulty: An analysis of item variables in learning Russian-English vocabulary pairs (Cited by 27). IRAL 7, 327-343.
Sanaoui, R. (1995) Adult learners' approaches to learning vocabulary in second languages (Cited by 79). The Modern Language Journal, 79, 15-28.
Scherfer, P. (1994a) Ueberlegungen zu einer Theorie des Vokabellernens und -lehren. In W. Börner & K. Vogel (eds.), Kognitive Linguistik und Fremdsprachenerwerb (pp. 185-215) Tübingen, Germany: Narr.
Scherfer, P. (1994b) Ein Vorschlag zur Systematisierung der Wortschatzarbeit im Fremdsprachenunterricht. In S. Merten (ed.), Von lernenden Menschen: Erst- und Zweitspracherwerbsprozesse (pp. 132-159) Rheinbreitbach, Germany: Dürr & Kessler.
Schmidt, R. (1992) Psychological mechanisms underlying second language fluency (Cited by 188). Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 357-385.
Schmidt, R. (1994) Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics (Cited by 214). AILA Review, 11, 11-26.
Schmitt, N. (1997) Vocabulary learning strategies (Cited by 198). In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 199-227) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R.M. (1977) Controlled and automatic human information processing: (Cited by 2781) I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1-66.
Schoonen, R., Hulstijn, J., & Bossers, B. (1998) Language-specific and metacognitive knowledge in native and foreign language reading comprehension: An empirical study among Dutch students in grades (Cited by 0) 6, 8 and 10. Language Learning, 48, 71-106.
Schwantes, F.M. (1981) Effect of story context on children's ongoing word recognition (Cited by 1). Journal of Reading Behavior, 13, 305-311.
Segalowitz, N. (1997) Individual differences in second language acquisition (Cited by 48). In A.M.B. de Groot & J.F. Kroll (eds.), Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 85-112) Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Segalowitz, N. (in press) Automaticity and attentional skill in fluent performance. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency. University of Michigan Press.
Segalowitz, N., & Gatbonton, E. (1995) Automaticity and lexical skills in second language fluency: Implications for computer assisted language learning (Cited by 16). Computer Assisted Language Learning, 8, 129-149.
Segalowitz, N., Poulsen, C., & Komoda, M. (1991) Lower level components or reading skill in higher level bilinguals: Implications for reading instruction (Cited by 81). AILA Review, 8, 15-30.
Seidenberg, M.S. (1995) Visual word recognition: An overview (Cited by 43). In J.L. Miller & P.D. Eimas (eds.), Speech, language, and communication (pp. 137-179) San Diego: Academic Press.
Shu, H., Anderson, R.C., & Zhang, H. (1995) Incidental learning of word meanings while reading: A Chinese and American cross-cultural study (Cited by 72). Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 76-95.
Sökmen, A.J. (1997) Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary (Cited by 0). In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 237-257) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Stanovich, K.E. (1980) Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency (Cited by 684). Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 360-406.
Sternberg, R.J. (1987) Most vocabulary is learned from context (Cited by 260). In M.G. McKeown & M. Curtis (eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89-105) Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Taft, M. (1993) Reading and the mental lexicon (Cited by 179). Hove: Erlbaum.
Taylor, L. (1990) Teaching and learning vocabulary (Cited by 912). New York: Prentice Hall.
Underwood, B.J. (1964) The representativeness of rote verbal learning (Cited by 36). In A.W. Melton (ed.), Categories of human learning (pp. 48-78) New York: Academic Press.
Van Bussel, F.J.J. (1994) Design rules for computer-aided learning of vocabulary items in a second language (Cited by 5). Computers and Human Behavior, 10, 63-76.
Van Ek, J.A., & Trim, J.L.M. (1991) Waystage 1990. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe Press.
Wallace, M. (1982) Teaching vocabulary. London: Heinemann.
Wang, A.Y., Thomas, M.H., & Ouellette, J.A. (1992) Keyword mnemonic and retention of second-language vocabulary words (Cited by 44). Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 520-528.
Watanabe, Y. (1997) Input, intake, and retention: Effects of increased processing on incidental learning of foreign language vocabulary (Cited by 76). Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 287-307.
Weinreich, U. (1953) Languages in contact (Cited by 2475). New York: Linguistic Circle of New York. Reprinted in 1974 by Mouton, The Hagu e.
Zechmeister, E.B., D'Anna, C., Hall, J.W., Paus, C.H., & Smith, J.A. (1993) Metacognitive and other knowledge about the mental lexicon: Do we know how many words we know? Applied Linguistics, 14, 188-206.
Zechmeister, E.B., & Nyberg, S.E. (1982) Human memory: An introduction to research and memory (Cited by 91). Monterey, CA: Brook/Cole.

3 comments:

kami said...

Hello!
Is there any possibility that you could email me this article?
I plan to read it for my dissertation and the university where I attend in Chile is occupied by students, so there is no access to the library system :(
Thanks in advance,
kamimutan@gmail.com

kami said...

Hey!
Could you please email me the article?
I am planning to read it for my dissertation.
I currently don't have access to the library system of my university because there is a biiig strike.
Well, thanks in advance.
kamimutan@gmail.com

Sam Joseph said...

Hi Kami,

If you don't have access to the article you should mail the author:

J.H.Hulstijn@uva.nl

I'm pretty sure he'll help you out.

CHEERS> SAM